Biblical allusions found in Douglas Adams' "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy"

Douglas Adams' book, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, is the wildly popular first installment of the series carrying the same name. If you have read the book or seen the movie, you probably recognized the dominate theme of a hedonistic view on life. The book's many adventures, sticky situations, wacky characters, and strange places all meld together to form one answer to THE question, "the answer to life, the universe, and everything": 42.... just kidding, a little closer look at the book and the reader can fairly easily come to the realization that Adams is saying there IS no answer to "THE" question. Adams is conveying an obvious hedonistic viewpoint on life; there is no great purpose for us on Earth, so have fun. That being said, it might seem a bit surprising that the book does contain many direct, as well as some not-so direct, allusions to the bible.

The introduction alone carries a few references to the bible, one to the main character, and one to the book itself. Adams sets the time period of his story by writing, "And then, one Thursday, nearly two thousand years after one man had been nailed to a tree for saying how great it would be to be nice to people for a change, a girl sitting on her own in a small cafe in Richmansworth suddenly realized what it was that had been going wrong all this time." This passing statement carries a blatant allusion to Jesus Christ, the main character of the New Testament, who was crucified for claiming to be the son of God and spreading his message of faith and redemption throughout the Middle East. The next allusion that appears in the introduction refers to the bible as a book itself. Adams says his story is on about "a book, a book called The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy." He then goes on to describe it as a very important, and popular, piece of literature:
"Not only is it a wholly remarkable book, it is also a highly successful one -- more popular than the Celestial Home Care Omnibus, better selling than Fifty-three More things to Do in Zero Gravity, and more controversial than Oolan Colluphid's trilogy of philosophical blockbusters, Where God Went Wrong, Some More of God's Greatest Mistakes, and Who Is This God Person Anyway?"
The guide is supposed to contain everything a person needs to know in order to navigate through life in a successful and meaningful manner. Sound familiar? The hitchhiker's guide is to the people of Douglas Adams' book as the bible is to Christians around the world. Furthermore, I don't think it is a coincidence that Adams juxtaposed the guide with three books questioning the motives and existence of God.

Douglas Adams continuously makes references to religion in general, not limited to Christianity. While presenting his view on life bearing no great meaning, Adams maintains a predominately satirical view on all religious references made in his book. However, there are several noteworthy biblical allusions and symbols to be found throughout the novel. For instance, there is an extended allusion to the Sadducees of the bible found in the book. The Vogons, the antagonists of the book, share many similarities with Sadducees. Douglas Adams describes them:
"They are one of the most unpleasant races in the Galaxy-not actually evil, but bad-tempered, bureaucratic, officious, and callous. They wouldn't even lift a finger to save their own grandmothers from the Ravenous Bugblatter Beast of Traal without orders signed in triplicate, sent in, sent back, queried, lost, found, subjected to public inquiry, lost again, and finally buried in soft peat for three months and recycled as firelighters."
The Vogons are, in essence, the gatekeepers, rulemakers, and rule enforcers of the universe. In much the same way, the Sadducees represent the state, carry out priestly duties, set forth rules for worship and everyday life, and enforce the rules they set in place. Both people groups are sticklers for the rules and are not exactly admired by common people. Coincidentally, both races hold a very high opinion of themselves.

The Vogons are the subject for another allusion found in the book. When they are first introduced, they are described as having a "highly domed nose" and "a small piggy forehead". In fact, pig references appear frequently in regards to Vogons. When Arthur Dent and Ford Prefect, two of the main characters, find themselves stuck on a Vogon ship, Ford offers Arthur advice on how to deal with the Vogons. He tells Arthur to choose his words carefully because Vogons are known for twisting words around and using them to "trample" the individual who first spoke them. This immediately brings to mind the words of Jesus found in Matthew 7:6: "Do not give dogs what is holy, and do not throw your pearls before pigs, lest they trample them underfoot and turn to attack you". The Vogons, in this case, take the role of pigs, and the pearls are any words spoken by another race to the Vogons.

Perhaps the most interestingly utilized biblical allusion found in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy comes in the form of a fish, a Babel fish to be exact. The Babel fish obviously borrows its name from the Tower of Babel erected in the Old Testament. The fish plays a key role in the book and is used in relation to languages; however, interestingly enough, it completely reverses the intended purpose of the Tower of Babel. In the story of the tower, the whole Earth spoke the same language; everybody was able to communicate with each other. Because of this, the people were able to erect a tower that very nearly put them face-to-face with Yahweh. God didn't like this very much. So, to keep the people from becoming to powerful, God scattered them all across the planet and confused their languages. Genesis 11:9 states, "That is why it [the tower] was called Babel—because there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth." However, the Babel fish in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy serves an opposing purpose. The fish is inserted into the ear where it unscrambles ANY language, allowing the user to understand everyone and everything he meets. The complete role reversal of this symbolic object is a good example of Adams use of religious themes throughout the book. He constantly turns the tables on the motifs of religion and uses them to support his theme of a meaningless world.

While the book is anything but religious, Adams masterfully uses these themes, as well as many other themes, to bolster the hedonistic nature of the story. Most of the religious references found in the book are ambiguous and satirical in nature. However, as you can now see, there are several allusions directly originating in the biblical text.

**Easter egg allusion from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the movie**

In the opening credits of the movie, a song is playing. The song is being delivered from the point-of-view of dolphins, who take on the role an all-knowing race (i.e. God). The dolphins, aware of the imminent destruction faced by Earth, have decided to leave their home world and are singing this farewell song to the human inhabitants of the planet. In the song, the dolphins explain to the humans that they have been trying to warn them of what is to come. However, being substantially less intelligent than the dolphins, the humans have missed all the signs and cues. This bears striking resemblance to the later stage of Deuteronomistic history, when God is absent for hundreds of years. The parting words of the dolphins reminisce on the many warnings they delivered and their frustration with the humans for not listening to them or heeding their warnings:

So long and thanks for all the fish
So sad that it should come to this
We tried to warn you all that you're dead

You may not share our intellect
Which might explain your disrespect
For all the natural wonders that
grow around you



In very similar fashion, a large portion of the strife between God and man found in the bible comes as a direct result of man's refusal to listen to God and heed his many warnings about various things. An added layer to this allusion could be the thanks being given by the dolphins for the fish the humans fed them. The Israelites constantly offer animal sacrifices to God in the Old Testament. I'm sure he appreciates that. So long, and thanks for all the oxen, and sheep, and doves, and goats, etc.

Psalm 57, and some more stuff towards the end..

Psalm 57 

1  Be merciful to me, O God, be merciful to me,

    for in you my soul takes refuge;

in the shadow of your wings I will take refuge,

    till the storms of destruction pass by.

2  I cry out to God Most High,

    to God who fulfills his purpose for me.

3  He will send from heaven and save me;

    he will put to shame him who tramples on me. Selah

God will send out his steadfast love and his faithfulness!

4  My soul is in the midst of lions;

    I lie down amid fiery beasts—

the children of man, whose teeth are spears and arrows,

    whose tongues are sharp swords.

5  Be exalted, O God, above the heavens!

    Let your glory be over all the earth!

6  They set a net for my steps;

    my soul was bowed down.

They dug a pit in my way,

    but they have fallen into it themselves. Selah

7  My heart is steadfast, O God,

    my heart is steadfast!

I will sing and make melody!

   8  Awake, my glory!

Awake, O harp and lyre!

    I will awake the dawn!

9  I will give thanks to you, O Lord, among the peoples;

    I will sing praises to you among the nations.

10  For your steadfast love is great to the heavens,

    your faithfulness to the clouds.

11  Be exalted, O God, above the heavens!

    Let your glory be over all the earth!

David realizes Saul means business

Determining the origin of this particular psalm is no ample task. The story behind the song comes from Saul’s continuous attempts on David’s life. David is no doubt fearful for his own safety as Saul seeks him out. The exact moment of strife noted in this poem happens when Saul wanders into the cave where David is hiding; however, Saul does not realize David is there. David is presented with the perfect opportunity to kill the man who is hell bent on killing him. Instead, David seizes this moment to show mercy to the King in the same way the Lord has continuously shown mercy and offered protection to David. 

1 Samuel 24: “When Saul returned from following the Philistines, he was told, “Behold, David is in the wilderness of Engedi.” 2 Then Saul took three thousand chosen men out of all Israel and went to seek David and his men in front of the Wildgoats' Rocks. 3 And he came to the sheepfolds by the way, where there was a cave, and Saul went in to relieve himself. Now David and his men were sitting in the innermost parts of the cave. 4 And the men of David said to him, “Here is the day of which theLord said to you, ‘Behold, I will give your enemy into your hand, and you shall do to him as it shall seem good to you.’” Then David arose and stealthily cut off a corner of Saul's robe. 5 And afterwardDavid's heart struck him, because he had cut off a corner of Saul's robe. 6 He said to his men, “TheLord forbid that I should do this thing to my lord, the Lord's anointed, to put out my hand against him, seeing he is the Lord's anointed.” 7 So David persuaded his men with these words and did not permit them to attack Saul. And Saul rose up and left the cave and went on his way.

8 Afterward David also arose and went out of the cave, and called after Saul, “My lord the king!” And when Saul looked behind him, David bowed with his face to the earth and paid homage. 9 And David said to Saul, “Why do you listen to the words of men who say, ‘Behold, David seeks your harm’? 10 Behold, this day your eyes have seen how the Lord gave you today into my hand in the cave. And some told me to kill you, but I spared you. I said, ‘I will not put out my hand against my lord, for he is the Lord's anointed.’ 11 See, my father, see the corner of your robe in my hand. For by the fact that I cut off the corner of your robe and did not kill you, you may know and see that there is no wrong or treason in my hands. I have not sinned against you, though you hunt my life to take it. 12 May the Lordjudge between me and you, may the Lord avenge me against you, but my hand shall not be against you. 13 As the proverb of the ancients says, ‘Out of the wicked comes wickedness.’ But my hand shall not be against you. 14 After whom has the king of Israel come out? After whom do you pursue? After a dead dog! After a flea! 15 May the Lord therefore be judge and give sentence between me and you, and see to it and plead my cause and deliver me from your hand.”

Throughout 1 Samuel, readers see David constantly fleeing in order to keep his life. Saul seeks him out relentlessly because he feels that David is a threat to his throne. With Joshua, Saul’s son, helping him, Davide is able to narrowly escape death on several different occasions. 

David gives Yahweh the puppy dog eyes

Psalm 57 shows the wide ranges of emotions and thoughts David is experiencing at this point in his life. This lament poem begins with David pleading with God to be merciful towards him; seemingly, this would be something that many people would do if their lives were immediately threatened. In verses 1-3 David expresses his feeling that the merciful hand of Yahweh is the only thing that will deliver him from Saul. This particular passage is separated by the anacrusis, “selah.” while there are many interpretations of what purpose this anacrusis holds, many scholars believe it was a sign that the audience, reader, or whoever is experiencing the psalm, should stop to reflect. David proceeds to explain his problem to the Lord in verses 4-6. He is in need of serious help, and he knows that Yahweh alone can provide that help. However, at the end of verse 6,  there is a sudden swing in mood in progression: “They set a net for my steps; my soul was bowed down. They dug a pit in my way, but they have fallen into it themselves” (emphasis is my own). This verse shows that David’s supplication to Yahweh has paid off, and it ends with the same anacrusis, “selah.” The remainder of the poem goes on to describe David’s praise to the Lord for delivering from the evil he seemed so destined to encounter. 

David wins

This psalm is alive with literary elements to help it achieve the desired effect of the poet. The psalm itself follows the basic order of a lament poem: invocation and supplication (verses 1-3), lamentation (verses 4-6), confession of faith (verse 7), and praise (verses 8-11). Interestingly enough, the shift in mood comes in verse 6, near the exact middle of the poem. 

Verses 1-3: The poem begins with exact parallelism to help show the drastic implications concerning the event being described. Parallelism is used to describe God’s mercy in line 1, and in lines 2-3 it is used again to detail the refuge the Lord has to offer. Imagery comes into the picture (hilarious, right? so punny) to help illustrate the safety to be found in Yahweh’s “wings”: “in the shadow of your wings I will take refuge, till the storms of destruction pass by.”

Verses 4-6: The imagery found in verse 1 pales in comparison to that found in this segment. The poet allots animalistic characteristics to those who are pursuing David, describing them as “lions” and “fiery beasts” who have “spears and arrows” for teeth and “sharp swords” for tongues. This is followed up with more synonymous parallelism that places Yahweh in a position of power: “Be exalted, O God, above the heavens! Let your glory be over all the earth!”. The climax of the poem to this point is marked by the reversal of roles that have seemingly been assigned so far. David becomes the animal who is in danger of falling into the net or pit that have been presented to him by his pursuers. However, David’s enemies are the ones who fall victim to their trap, thus furthering the animalistic qualities already ascribed to them. 

Verse 7: David faith has been strengthened due to the deliverance he experienced at the hand of Yahweh. Parallelism is used in an immensely important way. Verse 7, “My heart is steadfast, O God, my heart is steadfast!”, very closely echoes verse 1, “Be merciful to me, O God, be merciful to me”. The similarity of these two verses highlight the fact David’s supplication was answered. This verse brings the psalm full circle.

Verses 8-11: Since the psalm has come full circle, there are not many new directions for the poet to take while remaining on the same idea. So, in a sense, it starts over. However, instead of an outpouring of fearful emotion, pure happiness and thankfulness is decanted before the Lord. Parallelism (yes, again) and anaphora are used excellently

to accentuate the joy of David. Verse 8 contains imagery in two parallel lines: “Awake, my glory! Awake, O harp and lyre!”. After commanding his own soul to rouse, David expresses his intention to awake more things on the Lord’s behalf by saying, “I will awake the dawn! I will give thanks to you, O Lord, among the nations; I will sing praises to you among the nations.” The last two verses once again use parallelism to drive home their respective points. The idea of wakefulness found in verse 8 should have its own explication, in my opinion. David describes a process, or a cycle, that his spirit goes through in regards to this psalm and the story behind it. First, his soul is awakened: "Awake, my glory [soul]!" Then, he rouses his praise: "Awake, O harp and lyre!" Lastly, He starts a new season of his life, no longer as fearful of Saul as before: "I will awake the dawn!" This unique passage seems almost meta-theatrical in nature; it is a nested story that colors David's response to the original story from start to finish. 

It is surprising to me the amount of repetition of both ideas and words appear in this psalm. The use of parallelism, along with many other literary devices, translate quite well. It’s almost ironic to think that Hebrew poetry may be the most versatile of all poetic styles (or should I say adaptive), and it just so happens to be the style used in the most scrutinized, analyzed, and marginalized  book in the history of mankind. The Hebrew poetry found in Psalms carries beauty, elegance, and understanding with it wherever it goes. 

Like everything else in the Bible, this specific Psalm has survived (and even thrived) in today's world, and in this case, you don't have to look for an obscure reference to it in a song you've never heard, movie you've never watched, or book you've never read. No, I'm not talking about Pirates of the Caribbean (even though the evidence is totally there), but these words penned (presumably) by David are the driving force behind Mumford & Sons' greatest hits, "Awake My Soul." The Americana/Folk Rock staple band often quotes the Bible, along with other staples of classic literature, so it isn't surprising to find this illusion. The song's chorus continually echoes David's cry for the awakening of his soul found in verse 8 (the English Standard Version uses "glory"). 

What gives Samuel the right to serve as a priest?

Throughout the entirety of the Old Testament, readers become keenly aware that Yahweh is a stickler for the rules. When he commands his people to do something in a certain way, he expects them to do it exactly that way. Despite the many shortcomings and outright rebellion of the Israelites depicted in the Old Testament, Yahweh never falters from the way he expects things to be done. This is why it surprised me when Samuel is seen ministering before the Lord in the clothes donned by priests in 1 Samuel 2:18. After all, Samuel isn’t mentioned to be a descendant of the tribe of Levi in the surrounding text, and the priestly duties carried out in ancient Israel are strictly reserved for the Levites . So, what exactly gives Samuel the right to carry out priestly duties in the temple?

A linen ephod would be similar to the ephod worn by the high priests, minus the adornments

In 1 Samuel 1:1, it seems apparent that Samuel belongs to the tribe of Ephraim, a half tribe of Joseph. This seemingly eliminates any possibility of Samuel becoming a priest before the Lord. However, a closer look at the verse reveals something rather intriguing. The text describes Elkanah, Samuel’s father, as being a man “of the hill country of Ephraim.” This does not necessarily mean Elkanah belongs to the tribe of Ephraim, it only implies he lives there. According to the law concerning Levitical priesthood at the time, the tribe of Levi was never given an inheritance of land; rather, the priests of the tribe of Levi are dispersed throughout the entire nation of Israel. Therefore, it is very possible that Elkanah could be a Levite who simply lives among the tribe of Ephraim. To further bolster this possibility, it is important to note that during the time in which the Old Testament was written, sojourners and traveling priests often identified themselves with the name of the dominant tribe of the land in which they resided. Further digging into scripture reveals this to very likely be the case with Elkanah. 1 Chronicles 6:33-38, while a little dry for my taste, reveals a pretty interesting detail regarding the lineage of Samuel and his father, Elkanah: 

“33 These are the men who served and their sons. Of the sons of the Kohathites: Heman the singer the son of Joel, son of Samuel, 34 son of Elkanah, son of Jeroham, son of Eliel, son of Toah, 35 son of Zuph, son of Elkanah, son of Mahath, son of Amasai, 36 son of Elkanah, son of Joel, son of Azariah, son of Zephaniah, 37 son of Tahath, son of Assir, son of Ebiasaph, son of Korah, 38 son of Izhar, son of Kohath, son of Levi, son of Israel”.

This lineage includes Samuel and winds all the way back to Levi, son of Israel. Therefore Samuel is indeed a descendant of Levi, and as such, he maintains the right, if not the duty, to serve as a priest for the people of Israel. 

Even with all the evidence compounding to offer proof of Samuel’s Levite bloodline, I like to explore all the possibilities. Might as well have a backup plan, after all. While the evidence presented above offers limited room for doubt of Samuel being a Levite, there is absolutely no doubt that Samuel is a Nazarite:

“9 After they had eaten and drunk in Shiloh, Hannah rose. Now Eli the priest was sitting on the seat beside the doorpost of the temple of the Lord. 10 She was deeply distressed and prayed to the Lordand wept bitterly. 11 And she vowed a vow and said, ‘O Lord of hosts, if you will indeed look on the affliction of your servant and remember me and not forget your servant, but will give to your servant a son, then I will give him to the Lord all the days of his life, and no razor shall touch his head.’” (1 Samuel 1:9-11)

A Nazarite, in simple terms, is a person who makes a vow (or is vowed for, in the case of Samuel) to set themselves apart to the Lord. The notable characteristics of a Nazarite include abstaining from any sort of wine or strong drink, never cutting their hair, and refraining from coming in contact with corpse. Granted, that last characteristic is ignored in many of the Nazarite vows depicted in the Old Testament. The important aspect of a Nazarite, pertaining to this particular train of thought, is their ability to act as priests in the nation of Israel. Nazarites are set apart (consecrated, if you will) from an early age to serve the Lord only. This is a physical embodiment of the quintessential goal of Yahweh to have his people be set apart from the surrounding nations. While Nazarites are not considered Levitical priests in general, they do serve the Lord in surprisingly priestly ways. They are consecrated to minister before Yahweh in a variety of different capacities. Many Nazarites found in the Old Testament carry out their duties in the temple, much like Samuel. So, while the Nazarite priesthood resulting from a Nazarite vow is not synonymous with the Levitical priesthood, it does entail priestly duties being fulfilled. 

Whether the reader would like to view Samuel as a Levite or simply as a Nazarite, there is no question that he had the right and obligation to minister before the Lord. His presence in the temple may come as a surprise to readers at first, but upon further investigation, it becomes the only logical place for Samuel to be. If anything, considering his lineage and consecration as a Nazarite, it should be more surprising that Samuel ever set foot outside of the temple. He apparently had a double dose of the priesthood.